{"id":9790,"date":"2025-07-26T16:13:01","date_gmt":"2025-07-26T10:43:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/?p=9790"},"modified":"2025-07-27T12:15:55","modified_gmt":"2025-07-27T06:45:55","slug":"from-fluidity-to-fetters-how-the-british-codified-caste","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/from-fluidity-to-fetters-how-the-british-codified-caste\/","title":{"rendered":"From Fluidity to Fetters: How the British Codified Caste"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Introduction<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The caste system in India before British rule was a complex and regionally diverse web of social groups, occupational clans, and kinship networks. Identity was often fluid, with communities rising or falling in status through land ownership, marriage alliances, and local power dynamics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>When the British arrived, they encountered this fluid tapestry and set about simplifying it into rigid categories. Over six decades, through census enumeration, ethnographic surveys, legal statutes, and administrative policies, the colonial state froze caste into immutable castes\u2014turning a dynamic social structure into a tool of domination.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This article traces the key phases, actors, and mechanisms through which the British codified caste between 1871 and 1931, examining the enduring impact on Indian society.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. The First Census and the Birth of Official Categories (1871\u20131881)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The British Empire conducted its first all-India census in 1871, marking the administrative beginning of caste enumeration. Prior to this, provincial surveys noted landholdings and revenue but rarely delved into social identity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The 1871 census recorded age, sex, religion, and caste in broad terms.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>By 1881, district-level collectors began listing <strong>\u201cprincipal castes\u201d<\/strong> alongside primary occupations.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Fluid local identities were forced into static <strong>\u201cjatis,\u201d<\/strong> often based on outdated colonial sketches or hearsay.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>This early effort laid the groundwork for a bureaucratic obsession: once a category entered government records, it acquired the weight of legality and permanence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. Herbert Risley and the Ethnographic Survey (1901\u20131903)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Sir Herbert Hope Risley, Census Commissioner of India, embarked on a mission to classify Indians not just socially but racially. His key methods included:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Anthropometry<\/strong>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Measuring nasal index, skull dimensions, and stature to link caste to race.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Concluding that higher castes had \u201cAryan\u201d features, while lower castes bore <strong>\u201cDravidian\u201d<\/strong> traits.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ethnographic Notes<\/strong>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Documenting rituals, dress, and language for over 4,000 jatis.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Publishing the Ethnographic Atlas of India in 1903, a pseudo-scientific tome that fortified caste prejudices.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Racial Hierarchy<\/strong>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Elevating Brahmins and Rajputs as \u201cpure\u201d races.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Labeling Dalit and tribal groups as \u201cprimitive\u201d or \u201cquasi-savages.\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>Risley\u2019s survey cemented the idea that caste was a biological essence, not a mutable social practice.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. The National Census Expansion (1901\u20131931)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Between 1901 and 1931, four comprehensive censuses deepened the granularity of caste data:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table is-style-stripes\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>Census Year<\/th><th>Castes Enumerated<\/th><th>Key Developments<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>1901<\/td><td>~4,000<\/td><td>First granular caste list at national level<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1911<\/td><td>~4,300<\/td><td>Inclusion of sub-castes and regional variants<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1921<\/td><td>~4,528<\/td><td>Emergence of caste-based status disputes<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1931<\/td><td>~4,635<\/td><td>Last full caste census before independence<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Each round spurred groups to petition collectors for \u201cupward\u201d caste recognition, igniting status-mobility conflicts that previously operated at local scales.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. Legal Statutes and Land Legislation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Caste categories gained enforceable power through colonial laws:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Punjab Alienation of Land Act (1900)<\/strong><br>Restricted land ownership to \u201cagricultural castes,\u201d freezing caste mobility in property rights.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Criminal Tribes Act (1871)<\/strong><br>Designated entire castes as \u201ccriminal,\u201d subjecting them to surveillance, forced settlements, and restricted movement.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Madras and Bombay Land Tenures<\/strong><br>Courts upheld caste-based inheritance and tenancy rules, often citing Manusmriti or Hindu law commentaries to adjudicate disputes.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>By embedding caste into property law and criminal codes, the British ensured that social stratification had legal teeth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. Divide-and-Rule: Communal Electorates and Martial Races<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>To prevent unified opposition, the colonial state reinforced divisions:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Separate Electorates<\/strong><br>The Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) and Communal Award (1932) reserved legislative seats by religion and caste, institutionalizing political fragmentation.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Martial Race Theory<\/strong><br>Recruitment into the Indian Army prioritized \u201cmartial races\u201d\u2014Punjabi Muslims, Sikhs, Gurkhas, and Jats\u2014while Dalit and tribal groups were largely sidelined.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Police and Administration<\/strong><br>Local governance bodies were structured along caste lines, with village headmen often appointed from \u201chigh\u201d castes.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>These policies weaponized caste identity to sustain colonial authority.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. Education, Missionaries, and Reinforcement of Caste Roles<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>School textbooks, missionary reports, and college curricula reproduced caste hierarchies:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>British-authored histories portrayed Vedic Aryans as the pinnacle of civilization.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Missionary accounts sometimes decried caste but often relied on Brahmin informants for translation and interpretation.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Native educational boards mandated caste identifiers in student registers, reinforcing early life segmentation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>As literacy grew, so did caste consciousness\u2014young Indians learned to see themselves primarily through colonial lenses.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7. Archival Voices: Census Commissioner and Risley\u2019s Reflections<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p>\u201cCaste relations are, at present, the most powerful factor among the Hindus in restraining any form of social or political equality. To disturb them would be to invite social chaos.\u201d<br>\u2014 Sir Herbert Risley, Ethnographic Survey of India, 1903<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p>\u201cIt is, moreover, invidious to treat caste as mere local usage. Our duty is to reduce it to a uniform code, so as to render it intelligible and manageable by the state.\u201d<br>\u2014 Census Commissioner Report, 1883<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p>These statements reveal the colonial motive: stability through artificial uniformity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">8. The Lasting Impact on Post-Colonial India<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Although independent India abolished caste discrimination in law, the colonial codification left deep scars:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Rigid Jati Identities<\/strong><br>Census-born categories endured in voter rolls, school quotas, and welfare schemes.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Political Mobilization<\/strong><br>Caste became a primary axis of party politics, as leaders courted specific jati blocs for votes.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Social Stigma<\/strong><br>Groups once deemed \u201ccriminal\u201d by colonial statutes still face prejudice and over-policing.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The very tools of oppression\u2014statistical enumeration, legal caste lists, and administrative quotas\u2014have become instruments of both justice and division in modern India.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Between 1871 and 1931, the British transformed India\u2019s fluid, negotiable caste mosaic into a rigid hierarchy legible to colonial administrators. Census enumeration, racial anthropology, punitive laws, and divide-and-rule politics froze social identities into immutable castes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Understanding this history is essential\u2014not only to grasp the roots of contemporary caste conflicts but also to guide efforts toward genuine social fluidity. By recognizing the colonial origin of rigid castes, India can reclaim the flexibility, mobility, and dignity that pre-colonial society once offered.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Further Reading<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>\u201cThe Ethnographic Atlas of India,\u201d Sir Herbert Hope Risley (1903)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u201cCaste and Race in India,\u201d G.S. Ghurye (1932)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u201cColonialism and Caste,\u201d Nicholas Dirks (2001)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u201cThe Criminal Tribes Act,\u201d Meena Radhakrishna (2015)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<!--nextpage-->\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u0924\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0921\u093c\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901: \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091f\u093f\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0939\u093f\u0924\u093e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091f\u093f\u0936 \u0930\u093e\u091c \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 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\u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0916\u094b\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091f\u093f\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0938 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932 \u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947-\u092c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u091b\u0939 \u0926\u0936\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e, \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0915\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u092f\u0939 \u0932\u0947\u0916 1871 \u0938\u0947 1931 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091f\u093f\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094b\u0921\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0940 \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d (1871\u20131881)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091f\u093f\u0936 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091c\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0947 1871 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0908, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u091a\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f \u0914\u0930 \u0930\u093e\u091c\u0938\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0925\u0947, \u0932\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092e \u0939\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>1871 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u092f\u0941, \u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>1881 \u0924\u0915, \u091c\u093f\u0932\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 <strong>\u201c\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u201d <\/strong>\u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0947\u0936\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0936\u0941\u0930\u0942 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 <strong>\u201c\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902\u201d<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u0941\u092c\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0928\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0902\u0964<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u094c\u0915\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0939\u0940 \u091c\u0941\u0928\u0942\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935 \u0930\u0916\u0940: \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0938\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0930\u093f\u0915\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0939\u094b \u0917\u0908, \u0924\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928\u0940 \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. \u0939\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0930\u093f\u0938\u0932\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (1901\u20131903)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0938\u0930 \u0939\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b\u092a \u0930\u093f\u0938\u0932\u0947, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0906\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0925\u0947, \u0928\u0947 \u0928 \u0938\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915, \u092c\u0932\u094d\u0915\u093f \u0928\u0938\u094d\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>\u090f\u0902\u0925\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092a\u094b\u092e\u0947\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940<\/strong>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>\u0928\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0916\u094b\u092a\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0926 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0928\u0938\u094d\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938\u0964<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u201c\u0906\u0930\u094d\u092f features\u201d \u0914\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u201c\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0921\u093c\u0940\u092f traits\u201d \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0964<br><br><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>4,000 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f-\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u091c, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0914\u0930 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0926\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0947\u091c\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>1903 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 Ethnographic Atlas of India, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u091c\u093c\u092c\u0942\u0924\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<br><br><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>\u0928\u0938\u094d\u0932\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092e\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0930\u093e\u091c\u092a\u0942\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u201c\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u201d \u0928\u0938\u094d\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093e\u0964<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u0926\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0914\u0930 \u0906\u0926\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u201cPrimitive\u201d \u092f\u093e \u201cquasi-savage\u201d \u0915\u0939\u0915\u0930 \u0932\u0947\u092c\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092f\u0939 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092c\u0932\u094d\u0915\u093f \u091c\u0948\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 (1901\u20131931)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>1901 \u0938\u0947 1931 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0921\u0947\u091f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0908:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table is-style-stripes\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><thead><tr><th>\u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/th><th>\u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/th><th>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>1901<\/td><td>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 4,000<\/td><td>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1911<\/td><td>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 4,300<\/td><td>\u0909\u092a\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0947\u0936<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1921<\/td><td>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 4,528<\/td><td>\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092d\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1931<\/td><td>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 4,635<\/td><td>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0926\u094c\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u201c\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u201d \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u093e\u091a\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0947, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0918\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u092c \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u091b\u0935\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092d\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0947\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. \u0915\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0914\u0930 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0915\u093c\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u092c \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0940\u0902:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>\u092a\u0902\u091c\u093e\u092c \u0905\u0932\u0940\u0928\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0911\u092b \u0932\u0948\u0902\u0921 \u090f\u0915\u094d\u091f (1900)<\/strong><br>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u201c\u0915\u0943\u0937\u093f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902\u201d \u0915\u094b \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f \u0916\u0930\u0940\u0926\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u0939\u094b \u0917\u0908\u0964<br><br><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093f\u0928\u0932 \u091f\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0907\u092c\u094d\u0938 \u090f\u0915\u094d\u091f (1871)<\/strong><br>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u201c\u0905\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0927\u0940\u201d \u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940, \u091c\u092c\u0930\u0928 \u092c\u0938\u093e\u0935\u091f \u0914\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u093e\u0917\u092e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<br><br><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>\u092e\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u0914\u0930 \u092c\u0949\u092e\u094d\u092c\u0947 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong><br>\u0905\u0926\u093e\u0932\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0947\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0930 \u092e\u0928\u0941\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0902\u0925\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0907\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0906\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0939\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0916\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u093f\u0930\u094b \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928: \u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u091a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u0938\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0902<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>\u090f\u0915\u091c\u0941\u091f \u0935\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0927 \u0915\u094b \u0930\u094b\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0909\u092a\u0928\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0938\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0908\u0902:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>\u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u091a\u0928<\/strong><br>\u092e\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0932\u0947-\u092e\u093f\u0928\u094d\u091f\u094b \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 (1909) \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 (1932) \u0928\u0947 \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0938\u092d\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u091f\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u0902\u0964<br><br><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u0938\u094d\u0932 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/strong><br>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0947\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u201c\u0932\u0921\u093c\u093e\u0915\u0942 \u0928\u0938\u094d\u0932\u094b\u0902\u201d (Punjabi Muslims, Sikhs, Gurkhas, Jats) \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0926\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0914\u0930 \u0906\u0926\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0935\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964<br><br><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>\u092a\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0938 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928<\/strong><br>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u092f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0948\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u0947, \u0917\u093e\u0902\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0930 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f\u0964<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0907\u0928 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0914\u092a\u0928\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0925\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092e\u093f\u0936\u0928\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091c\u092c\u0942\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902, \u092e\u093f\u0936\u0928\u0930\u0940 \u0930\u093f\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0949\u0932\u0947\u091c \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0930\u0939\u0947:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091f\u093f\u0936-\u0932\u0947\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0907\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0938 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u092e\u093f\u0936\u0928\u0930\u0940 \u0926\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0947\u091c\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940, \u092a\u0930\u0928\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092e\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u0930\u093e\u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u091c\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093f\u090f, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0928\u092a\u0940\u2014\u092f\u0941\u0935\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u092a \u0915\u094b \u0914\u092a\u0928\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0936\u0941\u0930\u0942 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7. \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923: \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0906\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0914\u0930 \u0930\u093f\u0938\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\"><strong>&#8220;\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0930\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0930\u094b\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u093e\u091c\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0906\u092e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964&#8221;<\/strong><br>\u2014 \u0938\u0930 \u0939\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0930\u093f\u0938\u0932\u0947, \u090f\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092b\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947 \u0911\u092b \u0907\u0902\u0921\u093f\u092f\u093e, 1903<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p><strong>&#8220;\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0932\u093e\u0935\u093e, \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0939\u092e\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094b\u0921 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0930\u093e\u091c\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964&#8221;<\/strong><br>\u2014 \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0906\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0930\u093f\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f, 1883<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p>\u092f\u0947 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u0928\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u2014\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0932\u093e\u0928\u093e\u2014\u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">8. \u0909\u092a\u0928\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092d\u0947\u0926\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0916\u0924\u094d\u092e \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0915\u094b\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0928\u0947 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u0947 \u0918\u093e\u0935 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>\u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u091f \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong><br>\u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e-\u0938\u0943\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u094b\u091f\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f, \u0906\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0923 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u091c \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u092f\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<br><br><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>\u0930\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0902\u0926\u094b\u0932\u0928<\/strong><br>\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0930\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928 \u0917\u0908, \u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u092e\u0902\u091a \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<br><br><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0932\u0902\u0915<\/strong><br>\u091c\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0914\u092a\u0928\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u201c\u0905\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0927\u0940\u201d \u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0925\u0940\u0902, \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u091c \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091d\u0947\u0932\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0914\u091c\u093e\u0930\u2014\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e, \u0915\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u0947\u2014\u0905\u092c \u0906\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u092e \u0906 \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>1871 \u0938\u0947 1931 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091f\u093f\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930, \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0922\u093e\u0902\u091a\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u091c\u0928\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e, \u0928\u0938\u094d\u0932\u0940\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0914\u0930 \u0906\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093c\u093e\u0928\u0942\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924-\u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u2014\u0928 \u0938\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092b \u0938\u092e\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0940\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0918\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f, \u092c\u0932\u094d\u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938 \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0914\u0930 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u091c\u094b \u0909\u092a\u0928\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>\u201cThe Ethnographic Atlas of India,\u201d \u0938\u0930 \u0939\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b\u092a \u0930\u093f\u0938\u0932\u0947 (1903)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u201cCaste and Race in India,\u201d \u091c\u0940.\u090f\u0938. \u0918\u0941\u0930\u0947 (1932)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u201cColonialism and Caste,\u201d \u0928\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0932\u0938 \u0921\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0938 (2001)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u201cThe Criminal Tribes Act,\u201d \u092e\u0940\u0928\u093e \u0930\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0923 (2015)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Introduction The caste system in India before British rule was a complex and regionally diverse web of social groups, occupational clans, and kinship networks. Identity was often fluid, with communities rising or falling in status through land ownership, marriage alliances, and local power dynamics. When the British arrived, they encountered this fluid tapestry and set [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":35,"featured_media":9809,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[24],"tags":[1714,1722,1077,1715,1723,1718,1717,1716,1719,1724,1720,1721],"class_list":["post-9790","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-general-knowledge","tag-british-codification-of-caste","tag-british-colonial-policies-caste","tag-caste-system-india","tag-colonial-caste-census","tag-criminal-tribes-act","tag-divide-and-rule-india","tag-ethnographic-survey-of-india","tag-fluid-to-fetters-caste","tag-herbert-risley","tag-indian-census-history","tag-martial-races-theory","tag-punjab-alienation-of-land-act"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9790","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/35"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=9790"}],"version-history":[{"count":11,"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9790\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9806,"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9790\/revisions\/9806"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/9809"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=9790"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=9790"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.infipark.com\/articles\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=9790"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}